HOW TO PREPARE 30 ML OF GINGER TINCTURE B.P

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FORMULA:

fresh roots of GINGER (Zingiber officinale). : 15 GMS

PURIFIED ALCHOHAL : 30 ML

THEORY:

Ginger Tincture is the miracle herb for motion sickness and nausea. Breaks up congestion, increases circulation, works wonders on indigestion, gas, sore throats & colds. A tincture is an ALCHOHALIC EXTRACT OF A NON- VOLATILE SUBSTANCE . To qualify as a tincture, the alcoholic extract is to have a ETHANOL percentage of at least 40-60% (sometimes a 90% percent pure liquid is even achieved). Solutions of volatile substances were called SPIRITS, although that name was also given to several other materials obtained by DISTILLATION , even when they did not include alcohol.

PROCEDURE:

FIRSTLY, ADD 15 GMS OF GINGER POWDER IN FILTER TYPE CONTAINER IN WHICH COTTON IS PRESENT IN ITS ENDS. ADD 30 ML OF PURE ALCHOHAL VIGOROUSLY AND REPEATED THE PROCESS OF FILTER UNTIL CLEAR GINGER TINCTURE FOUND & FINALLY MAKE UP THE VOLUME. SOLUTION IS IN BROWN COLOR.

CATEGORY:

PHARMACEUTICAL AID

USE:

AS CARMINATIVE, EXPECTORANT & FLAVOURING AGENT & REMOVE MUCUS FROM THROAT.

STORAGE:

STORE IN A TIGHT CLOSED CONTAINER.

TO PRE[ARE 10 GMS OF COMPOUND RHUBARB POWDER

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FORMULA:

RHUBARB : 2.5 GMS

HEAVY MAGNESIUM CARBONATE : 3.25 GMS

LIGHT MAGNESIUM CARBONATE : 3.25 GMS

GINGER : 1.00 GMS

PROCEDURE:

WEIGH THE REQUIRED QUANTITY OF RHUBARB POWDER & WEIGH HEAVY MAGNESIUM CARBONATE AND MIX THEM WELL IN MORTAR & AFTER THAT ADD LIGHT MAGNESIUM CARBONATE & MIX IN MORTAR AND MIX THEM WELL & AT LAST MIX GINGER & AGAIN MIXING TILL FINE POWDER MADE & GRITTINESS DISAPPEARS.

CATEGORY:

BULK ORAL POWDER.

USE:

AS LAXATIVES & CARMINATIVES.

STORAGE:

LIGHT RESISTANT AIR TIGHT CONTAINER.

TO PREPARE 10 GMS OF PRICKLY HEAT POWDER

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FORMULA:

BORIC ACID : 0.89 GMS

TALC : 4.48 GMS

STARCH : 4.48 GMS

MENTHOL : 0.178 GMS

PROCEDURE:

WEIGH THE REQUIRED QUANTITY OF BORIC ACID AS WELL AS TALC & MIX THEM WELL IN A MORTAR, AFTER MIXING ADD STARCH AND AGAIN MIXING. AFTER MIXING THEN ADD MENTHOL AND AGAIN DO MIXING TILL FINE POWDER MADE & NO GLITTERY PARTICLES LEFT.

CATEGORY:

ANTISEPTIC

USE:

AS AN ANTISEPTIC & GIVES RELIEF FROM EXCESSIVE HUMIDITY & PRICKLY HEAT SUMMER & AVOID RED RASHES IN THE BODY & GIVES COOLING SENSATION.

STORAGE:

STORE IN A SNIFTER TIGHT CONTAINER.

TO PREPARE 30 ML OF TURPENTINE LINIMENT I.P

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FORMULA:

SOFT SOAP : 2.7 GMS

CAMPHOR : 1.5 GMS

TURPENTINE OIL : 19.2 ML

PURIFIED WATER UPTO : 30.0 ML

THEORY:

LINIMENTS is a medicated topical preparation for application to the skin. Preparations of this type are also called balm. Liniments are of a similar viscosity to LOTIONS but unlike a lotion a liniment is applied with friction; that is, a liniment is always rubbed in. Liniments are typically sold to relieve pain and stiffness, such as from sore muscles or from arthritis.

PROCEDURE:

WEIGH THE REQUIRED QUANTITY OF SOFT SOAP & DISSOLVE IN PURIFIED WATER. WEIGH THE REQUIRED QUANTITY OF CAMPHOR & TURPENTINE OIL. CAMPHOR SOLUTIONS IS ADDED TO THE SOAP SOLUTIONS WITH TRITURITION UNTIL A THICK CREAMY EMULSION IS FORMED. PURIFIED & MAKE UP THE VOLUME.

CATEGORY :

LINIMENTS

USE:

COUNTER IRRITANT & RUBEFACIENT & ALSO USED IN SORE MUSCLES & ARTHRITIS PROBLEM.

STORAGE:

IN A TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER & IN A COOL PLACE.

TO PREPARE 20 GMS OF O.R.S POWDER

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FORMULA:

SODIUM CHLORIDE : 0.50 GMS

POTASSIUM CHLORIDE : 0.75 GMS

SODIUM HYDROGEN CARBONATE : 0.75 GMS

DEXTROSE UPTO : 20.0 GMS

THEORY:

A powder is a dry, bulk solid composed of a large number of very fine particles that may flow freely when shaken or tilted. Powders are a special sub-class of granular materials, although the terms powder and granular are sometimes used to distinguish separate classes of material. In particular, powders refer to those granular materials that have the finer grain sizes, and that therefore have a greater tendency to form clumps when flowing.

PROCEDURE:

POWDER ALL THE INGREDIENTS IF ALREADY NOT INFINETELY POWDERED FORM WEIGH EACH INGREDIENT ACCURATELY. THOROUGHLY IN THE ASCENDING ORDER OF THEIR WEIGHTS.

CATEGORY:

PHARMACEUTICAL AID.

USE:

AS AN ELECTROLYTE REPLENISHER & USED IN DIARRHOEA , DYSENTERY, DEHYDRATION & FLUID LOSS.

STORAGE:

IN AN AIR TIGHT CONTAINER & IN A COOL PLACE.

HOW TO PREPARE 20 ML OF STARCH MUCILAGE I.P

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FORMULA:

1. 
   
   STARCH : 0.1 GMS


2. 
   
   PURIFIED WATER : 30.0 ML

THEORY:

STARCH IS SOMETIMES USED WITH OTHER SUSPENSING AGENT BECAUSE OF HIGH VISCOSITY OF ITS MUCILAGE. IT IS AN INGREDIENT OF COMPOUND TRAGACANTH POWDER & A MUCILAGE MAY BE USED WITH A SODIUM CARBOXY- METHYL CELLULOSE TO REPLACE COMPOUND TRAGACANTH POWDER IN THE BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CODEX MIXTURES OF SUCCINYL SULPHATHIAZOLE & SULPHADIMITIDINE FOR CHILDREN.

PROCEDURE:

MIX 5 GMS OF STARCH IN 50 ML OF WATER & STIR CONTINUOUSLY. ADD SUFFICIENT WATER TO PRODUCE 1000 ML. BOIL FOR A FEW MINUTES, COOL & FILTER.

CATEGORY:

PHARMACEUTICAL AID.

USE:

EMULSIFYING, SUSPENSING, BINDING AGENT & THICKENING AGENT.

STORAGE:

STORE IN A COOL & TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER.

HOW TO PERPARE 30 ML OF BENZYL BENZOATE LOTION U.S.P

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FORMULA:

• 
  
  BENZYL BENZOATE : 7.5 ML


• 
  
  TRIETHANOLAMINE : 0.15 GM


• 
  
  OLEIC ACID : 0.60 GM


• 
  
  PURIFIED WATER : 0.9 GM

THEORY:

LOTIONS ARE USUALLY SOOTHING & ARE APPLIED GENTLY BY DABLING OR AFTER SPREADING ON A DRESSING. THEIR MAIN INGREDIENTS ARE SIMPLE SALTS SUCH AS COPPER, ZINC, SULPHATES & LEAD SUB ACETATE WHICH ARE SOLUBLE IN WATER OR SALICYLIC ACID FOR WHICH ALCHOHAL IS A SOLVENT. LEAD LOTIONS ARE TREATMENT FOR SPRAINS & BRUISHES. OTHER LOTIONS CONTAIN MEDICAMENTS FOR TREATING SKIN CONDITIONS. COPPER & ZINC SULPHATES ARE USED FOR IMPETIGO & SALICYLIC ACID FOR DANDRUFF.

PROCEDURE :

MIX THE TRIETHANOLAMINE WITH OLEIC ACID, ADD BENZYL BENZOATE & MIX & TRANSFER THE MIXTURE TO A SUITABLE CONTAINER TO ABOUT 2000 ML. ADD 250 ML OF PURIFIED WATER & SHAKE THE MIXTURE THOROUGHLY. FINALLY, ADD THE REMAINING PURIFIED WATER.

CATEGORY:

PHARMACEUTICAL AID.

USE:

AS PEDICULICIDE & IN THE TREATMENT OF SCABIES & Use of benzyl benzoate to obtain injection solutions of hormone preparations

STORAGE:

STORE IN A WELL CLOSED CONTAINER.

HOW TO PREPARE 30 ML OF SIMPLE SYRUP U.S.P

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FORMULA :

• 
  
  SUCROSE : 25.5 GMS


• 
  
  DISTILLED WATER : 30 ML

THEORY :

ACCORDING TO U.S.P (UNITED STATES OF PHARMACOPOEIA) SIMPLE SYRUP IS PREPARED AND BASED ON COLD PROCESS BUT REMEMBER I.P(INDIAN PHARMACOPOEIA) SIMPLE SYRUP IS BASED ON HOT PROCESS

A syrup is a thick VISCOUS LIQUID containing a large amount of dissolved SUGARS, but showing little tendency to deposit CRYSTALS. The viscosity arises from the multiple HYDROGEN BONDS, between the dissolved sugar, which has many HYDROXYL GROUPS AND THE WATER. Syrup is also employed to denote viscous, generally residual, liquids, containing substances other than sugars in solution. Artificial maple syrup is made with water and an extremely large amount of dissolved sugar. The solution is heated so more sugar can be put in than normally possible. The solution becomes super-saturated. The syrup employed as a base for medicinal purposes consists of a concentrated or saturated solution of refined sugar in distilled water.

PROCEDURE :

TAKE A FILTER MACHINE AND PUT A LARGE AMOUNT OF COTTON IN THE OUTLET OF MACHINE WHERE SOLUTION COMES OUT . INSERT SUCROSE IN A FILTER AND PUT IT OVER A COTTON AND THEN ADD DISTILLED WATER IN THE FILTER. REPEAT THE PROCESS FOR ABOUT ATLEAST 50 TIMES TILL ALL THE SUCROSE DISSOLVED IN DISTILLED WATER AND MAKE A STICKY, THICK AND VISCID LIQUID. AFTER DOING WHOLE PROCESS YOUR SIMPLE SYRUP U.S.P IS PREPARED.

CATEGORY :

PHARMACEUTICAL AID.

USE :

AS A SOLVENT AND SWEETINING AGENT.

STORAGE :

STORE IN A COOL AND DRY PLACE AND ALSO PUT IN AN AIR TIGHT CONTAINER AND PROTECT FROM LIGHT.

HOW TO PREPARE 30 ML OF AROMATIC ELIXIR U.S.P

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FORMULA :

PURIFIED ALCHOHAL : 7.5 ML

PEPPERMINT OIL : 0.0725 ML

• 
  SYRUP : 11.25 ML
  


• 
  TALC (3MgO.4SiO2.H20) : 0.9 ML
  

THEORY :

An elixir is a pharmaceutical preparation containing an active ingredient (such as MORPHINE ) that is dissolved in a solution that contains some percentage (usually 40-60%) of ETHYL ALCHOHAL and is designed to be taken orally. Elixirs are often made from vodka or grappa.

PROPERTIES :

The official U. S. P. alcohol is a colorless volatile liquid containing about 94.9 per cent, by volume of absolute ethyl alcohol, C2H5OH, and 5.1 per cent. by volume of water. It has a characteristic odor and burning taste and is miscible in all proportions with water, ether or chloroform. In addition to alcohol, the U. S. P also describes absolute alcohol, used as a laboratory reagent, etc., and also diluted alcohol (approximately 50 per cent.) used in pharmacy as a menstruum.

PROCEDURE :

FIRST TAKE BEAKER AND POUR 3.5 ML PURIFIED ALCHOHAL AND ADD REQUIRED AMOUNT OF PEPPERMINT OIL AND STIR IT WELL . THEN AFTER THAT ADD 4 ML OF PURIFIED ALCHOHAL AND AGAIN STIRRING. AFTER STIRRING ADD SMALL QUANTITY OF SYRUP AT A TIME IN A BEAKER AND THEN ADD TALC IN IT AND STIR IT WELL THAT THERE ARE NO CRYSTALS ARE LEFT IN THE SOLUTION. AFTER THAT FILTER YOUR SOLUTION BY FILTER PAPER AND PUT IN A MEASURING CYLINDER AND MEASURES 30 ML. AROMATIC ELIXIRS U.S.P ARE PREPARED AND COLLECTED TO BOTTLE.

ACTION AND USES :

: Externally, alcohol is a rubefacient and astringent, and by its evaporation, a refrigerant. It is used to harden and cleanse the skin; as a mild counter-irritant, (soap liniment), etc. In the concentration of 70 per cent, it is markedly antiseptic and is employed in surgery especially as Tincture of Green Soap, to cleanse the skin of patient and operator, internally, it is a narcotic, excessive doses depressing and paralyzing the central nervous system. Small doses produce cuphoria, stimulate respiration, moderately dilate the cutaneous and splanchnic vessels, and modify the circulation. It is burned in the body and thus serves to a restricted extent as a source of energy.

Alcohol is employed as a diffusible stimulant, diuretic, diaphoretic and hypnotic. In well-selected cases, especially in patients accustomed to its use, it may be very valuable; otherwise it is apt to do more harm than good. In practice it is usually administered in the form of whisky, brandy, wine or other alcohol-containing beverages. It is generally accepted, however, that the aromatic principles in these several articles are even more toxic than is alcohol itself, and these beverages are therefore more poisonous than equal amounts of alcohol diluted with water.

CATEGORY :

PHARMACEUTICAL AID

USE :

In pharmacy alcohol is used as a solvent and, for administering medicines, is largely used as a vehicle and flavouring agent.

STORAGE :

store in an air tight container and in dry and cool place.

HOW TO PREPARE 30 ML OF AROMATIC ELIXIR U.S.P

HOW TO PREPARE 30 GRAMS OF SIMPLE SYRUP

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FORMULA :





SUCROSE : 20.01 GRAMS.


DISTILLED WATER : 22.00 ML.





THEORY :





A SYRUP is a thick, VISCOUS LIQUID, containing a large amount of dissolved SUGARS, but showing little tendency to deposit CRYSTALS. The viscosity arises from the multiple HYDROGEN BONDS between the dissolved sugar, which has many HYDROXYL (OH) groups, and the WATER. Technically and scientifically, the term syrup is also employed to denote viscous, generally residual, liquids, containing substances other than sugars in solution. Artificial maple syrup is made with water and an extremely large amount of dissolved sugar. The solution is heated so more sugar can be put in than normally possible. The solution becomes super-saturated.





FLAVOURED SYRUP is prepared by adding certain quantities of ORANGE FLAVOURING and CINNAMON water to simple syrup. Similarly, medicated syrups are prepared by adding medicaments to, or dissolving them in, the simple syrup.





PROCEDURE :





FIRST TAKE A BOROSIL BEAKER AND INSERT WHITE POWDERY SUCROSE SOLUTION AND ADD DISTILLED WATER IN IT GENTLY. HEAT IT ABOUT 30 - 35 MINUTES. AFTER HEATING ABOUT 30 - 35 MINUTES YOUR SUGAR SYRUP OR SIMPLE SYRUP IS READY AND PREPARED. SUGAR SYRUP FEELS STICKY WHEN TOUCHING AND IS BROWN IN COLOUR.





USE :





IT IS ONLY USED AS A SWEETING AGENT.

HOW TO PREPARE 30 ML OF AMMONIUM ACETATE SOLUTION

FORMULA :

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• 
  
  GLACIAL ACETIC ACID : 13.59 GRAMS.


• 
  
  AMMONIUM BICARBONATE : 14.10 GRAMS.


• 
  
  STRONG SOLUTION OF AMMONIA : 3.00 ML.


• 
  
  DISTILLED WATER : 30.00 ML.

THEORY :

a solution is a HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURE composed of two or more substances. In such a mixture, a solute is dissolved in another substance, known as a SOLVENT. A common example is a SOLID, such as SALT or SUGAR, dissolved in WATER, a LIQUID. GASES may DISSOLVE in liquids, for example, CARBON DIOXIDE or OXYGEN in water. Liquids may dissolve in other liquids. Gases can combine with other gases to form mixtures, rather than solutions. All solutions are characterized by interactions between the solvent phase and solute molecules or ions that result in a net decrease in free energy. Under such a definition, gases typically cannot function as solvents, since in the gas phase interactions between molecules are minimal due to the large distances between the molecules. This lack of interaction is the reason gases can expand freely and the presence of these interactions is the reason liquids do not expand.Solutions should be distinguished from non-homogeneous mixtures such as COLLOIDS and SUSPENSIONS.

PROCEDURE :

FIRST TAKE THE DISTILLED WATER IN A BOROSIL BEAKER AND THEN POUR GLACIAL ACETIC ACID IN IT AND MIX IT WELL. AFTER MIXING WELL INSERT AMMONIUM BICARBONATE GENTLY. AFTER MIXING THE SOLUTION WILL APPEAR COOL AND FEEL COOL WHEN TOUCHING LOWER PORTION OF BEAKER. WHEN AMMONIUM BICARBONATE CRYSTALS ARE DISSOLVED COMPLETELY IN THE SOLUTION THEN ADD STRONG SOLUTION OF AMMONIA DROP BY DROP. AFTER DOING ENTIRE PROCESS YOUR SOLUTION WILL BE READY.

HAZARDS :

MAY CAUSE IRRITATION TO SKIN, EYES, AND RESPIRATORY TRACT. MAY BE HARMFUL IF SWALLOWED.

HANDLING AND STORAGE :

Keep in a tightly closed container, stored in a cool, dry, ventilated area. Protect against physical damage. Isolate from incompatible substances. Containers of this material may be hazardous when empty since they retain product residues (dust, solids); observe all warnings and precautions listed for the product.

USE :

Laboratory Reagent.

HOW TO PREPARE 30 ML OF LYSOL SOLUTION

FORMULA:

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• POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE : 1.26 GRAMS.


• 
  
  DISTLLED WATER : 7.50 ML.


• 
  
  VEGETABLE OIL : 5.90 GRAMS.


• 
  
  ORTHO- CRESOL : 15.00 ML.

THEORY:

Disinfectants are ANTI-MICROBIAL AGENTS that are applied to non-living objects to destroy MICROORGANISMS, the process of which is known as disinfection.Disinfectants should generally be distinguished from ANTIBIOTICS that destro MICROORGANISMS within the body, and from ANTISEPTICS, which destroy microorganisms on living TISSUE. Sanitizers are substances that reduce the number of microorganisms to a safe level.One official and legal version states that a sanitizer must be capable of killing 99.999%, known as a 5 log reduction, of a specific bacterial test population, and to do so within 30 seconds. The main difference between a sanitizer and a disinfectant is that at a specified use dilution, the disinfectant must have a higher kill capability for pathogenic bacteria compared to that of a sanitizer. Very few disinfectants and sanitizers can STERILIZE (the complete elimination of all microorganisms), and those that can depend entirely on their mode of application. Bacterial ENDOSPORES are most resistant to disinfectants, however some viruses and bacteria also possess some tolerance.

PROCEDURE:

FIRST TAKE A BOROSIL GLASS MADE BEAKER AND INSERT POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE AND ALSO POUR DISTILLED WATER AND MIX IT WELL SO THAT NO CRYSTALS WILL BE SEEN IN SOLUTION. NOW, HEAT THE MIXTURE,AFTER HEATING ABOUT 7 - 8 MINUTES POUR VEGETABLE OIL IN IT AND AGAIN HEAT, WHEN VEGETABLE OIL MIXED IT COMPLETELY IN THE SOLUTION THEN POUR FADE RED COLOURED SOLUTION WHICH IS CALLED ORTHO- CRESOL POURED IN IT AND THEN HEAT GENTLY. AFTER HEATING ABOUT 14- 15 MINUTES NOW YOUR DISINFECTANT NAMED LYSOL WILL BE READY TO USE.

USES :

IT ACT AS DISINFECTANT AND IT IS APPLIED ONLY IN AN INANIMATE OBJECTS, IT IS HIGHLY POISONOUS TO CONSUME . IT IS ONLY FOR EXTRENAL USE.

IT IS USED IN HOSPITALS FOR FLOOR CLEANING AND IN HOUSEHOLD PURPOSES.

Practical sction for General Pharmacy

How to prepare 100 ml of Calamine lotion:

FORMULA :- - - -

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• 
  
  CALAMINE : 15.0 GRAMS.


• 
  
  ZINC OXIDE : 5.0 GRAMS.


• 
  
  BENTUNITE : 3.0 GRAMS.


• 
  
  SODIUM CITRATE : 0.5 GRAMS.


• 
  
  LIQUIFIED PHENOL : 0.5 ML.


• 
  
  GLYCERINE : 5.0 ML.


• 
  
  ROSE WATER : 0.02 ML.


• 
  
  DISTILLED WATER : UPTO 100.0 ML.

PROCEDURE :

FIRST TAKE THE CALAMINE ABOUT 15 GMS IN A MORTAR AND THEN TAKE ZINC OXIDE AND MIX WELL IN A MORTAR, THIRDLY,TAKE BENTUNITE AND MIX IT WELL. TAKE SODIUM CITRATE IN A SMALL BEAKER AND MIX IT WITH 30 ML OF DISTILLED WATER AND POUR THE SOLUTION IN A MORTAR GENTLY AND MIX IT WILL TILL ALL INGERDIENTS WILL BE SEEN IN A FINE POWEDERY AND SMOOTH PASTE. AFTRE THAT, POUR GLYCERINE DROP BY DROP AND ALSO POUR ROSE WATER GENTLY. LASTLY, TAKE A DISTILLED OR PURIFIED WATER IN A MEASURING CYLINDER ABOUT UPTO 100 ML AND POUR 100 ML OF DISTILLED WATER IN A MORTAR AND KEEP IN A CLOSED BOTTLE. SO YOUR CALAMINE LOTION WILL BE READY. SHAKE WELL BEFORE USE.

THEORY :

A lotion is a low- to medium-viscosity, topical preparation intended for application to unbroken skin; creams and gels have a higher viscosity. Most lotions are oil-in-water emulsions, but water-in-oil lotions are also formulated. Lotions are usually applied to external skin with bare hands, a clean cloth, cotton wool or gauze; creams and gels usually only with one's fingers or palms. Many lotions, especially Hand Creams and Face cream are formulated not as a medicine delivery system, but simply to smooth and soften the skin— these are particularly popular with the aging and aged demographic groups, and in the case of face usage, can also be classified as a cosmetic in many cases.
The key components of a skin care lotion, cream or gel emulsion (that is mixtures of oil and water) are the aquous and oily phases, an emulgent to prevent separation of these two phases, and, if used, the drug substance or substances. A wide variety of other ingredients such as fragnances, glycerol, petrolium jelly, dyes, preservatives proteins and stabilizing agents are commonly added to lotions.

USES :

Calamine is a mixture of ZINC OXIDE (ZnO) with about 0.5% IRON OXIDE(Fe2O3). CALAMINE is the main ingredient in calamine lotion and is used as an ANTIPRURITIC (anti-itching agent) to treat mild pruritic conditions such as SUNBURN , ECZEMA , RASHES, POISON IVY , CHICKEN POX , INSECT bites and stings.It is also used as a mild ANTISEPTIC to prevent infections that can be caused by scratching the affected area, and an ASTRINGENT to dry weeping or oozing BLISTERS and ACNE ABSCESSES. IT ALSO ACT AS SOOTHING,SMOOTHING AND MOISTURING AGENT AND GIVES PROTECTION FROM SUNBURN.

Pharmaceutical Analysis 2

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1. 
   
   Accuracy :- It is the measurement of correctness of analysis.


2. 
   
   Accuracy of the determination may be defined as the concordance between it and the true or the most probable value.

• 
  
  Methods for determinig analysis :- - - - -

1. 
   
   Absolute method :- Synthetic sample of known amount of constituents are prepared by weighing about pure elements or compounds of known stoichiometric composition.


2. 
   
   These substances are available commercially or prepared by analysis and subjected to vigorous purification by recrystallization.

3. The substances must be of known purity.

• 
  
  Test of Accuracy :- - - - -


• 
  
  amount of constituents are taken and proceed according to the specify instruction.


• 
  
  The amount of constituents is varied because the determinate error in the procedure may be the function of amount used.


• 
  
  Here, accuracy = Mean of results-Amount of constituents present.


• 
  
  Comparitive method :- - - - -


• 
  
  In analysis of minerals, it is impossible to prepare solid synthetic sample of desired composition.


• 
  
  We use accuracy standards.

Precision : - - - - - - -

• 
  
  It is the concordance of the series of measurement of same quantity.

• 
  
  Primary Standards:- - - - - -

Primary standards are the referenced solution that are used frequently in defined conentration.

Primary compounds are made of compound of sufficient impurity.

• 
  
  Requirement of primary standards: -- - - - - -

1. 
   
   It must be easy to obtain purity,dry or preserved in pure state.


2. 
   
   It should get unaltered in air during weighing.


3. 
   
   It should have relatively higher molecular masses such that weighing errors must be negligible.


4. 
   
   It should be readily soluble under conditions under which it is employed.


5. 
   
   The reaction with a standard should be stoichiometric or practically instantaneous.

• 
  
  Substances commonly employed as primary standards: -- - - - - -

1. 
   
   Acid- base reaction: - - - - -

Sodium carbonate, Sodium tetraborate, Potassium hydrogn pthalate, Potassium hydrogen iodate.

• 
  
  Compex formation reaction: - - - - - - -

In this reaction we use pure metals as primary standard.

Examples: - - - - -

Zinc, Magnesium, COPPER, Manganese.

• 
  
  Precipitation reaction: - - - - - - -

Examples: - - - - -

Silver, Silver nitrate, KCl, NaCl.

• 
  
  Oxidation and reduction reaction: - -- - - - -

Potassium dichromate, Potassium bromate , Potassium iodate, sodium oxalate.

• 
  
  Secondary standard: -- - - - - - -

In this the content of active substances have been found by comparison aganist a primary standard.

In primary standard, the conc. of dissolved solute is determined by direct weight while in secondary standard the conc. of dissolved solute is determined by the reaction of the volume of the solution aganist measured volume of the primary standard.

• 
  
  Classification of errors: - - - - - - -

1. 
   
   Systematic or determinate error: -- - - -

These are those errors which can be avoided & whose magnitude can be determined.

• 
  
  Operational or personal error :- - - - -

This is connected with individual but not with method.

Example: - - - --

Inability of a person to judge burette reading or colour change.

The chemical loss of material during sample dissolution from bumping.

• 
  
  Instrumental & reagent error : - - - -

This is due to the faulty construction of instruments.

Example: - -- - - - -

Use of uncaliberated weight.

Use of reagent containing impurity and attack on glass & porcelain etc.

• 
  
  Error of method: - - - - - -

This is the most serious error & difficult to detect.

example: - - - --

Solubility of precipitate.

1. 
   
   random or indeterminate error: - - - - - These errors are due to causes overwhich analyst has no control.

Pharmaceutical Analysis

• 
  
  Analysis are of two types:- - -

1. 
   
   Qualitative Analysis.


2. 
   
   Quantitative analysis.

• 
  
  Quantitative analysis are also of two types:- - -

1. 
   
   Volumetric Analysis.


2. 
   
   Titrimetric Analysis.

• 
  
  Quantitative chemical analysis carries out by determining the volume of solutions of accurately known as concentration which is required to react quantitatively with a measured volume of the solution of the substance to be determined.


• 
  
  Standard Solution: The solution of accurately known strength is known as Standard solution.


• 
  
  The reagent of known concentration is called TITRANT and substance being titrized called TITRAND.


• 
  
  Process of adding the standard solution until the reaction is just complete is also termed as TITRANT.


• 
  
  Process at which chemical or colour change occurs is known as equivalence point and theorotical point and stoichiometric end point.


• 
  
  The completion of titrant is detected by some physical change of the standard solution.

In titrimetric analysis reaction must obey the follwing condition : - - -

• 
  
  They must be a simple reaction which can be expressed by chemical equation.


• 
  
  Reaction should be realtively passed.


• 
  
  There must be an alteration in some physical and chemical properties of the solution and equivalence point.


• 
  
  An indicator should be available in physical properties should sharply defines the end point of the solution.

Classification of reaction in titrimetric analysis: - - -

1. 
   
   Neutralisation reaction and acidimety and alkalimetry.


2. 
   
   Complex formation reaction.


3. 
   
   Precipitation reaction.


4. 
   
   Oxidation and reduction reaction.

• 
  
  This includes titration of free bases, those are formed from the salts of weak acid by hydrolysis with a standard acid called Acidimetry and those are formed by hydrolysis of the salt of weak base with a standard base called Alkalimetry.


• 
  
  This reaction depends upon the combination of ions to form a precipitate.

for example: - -- - -- - Silver ion of solution in chloride.

• 
  
  Indicators are metal ions.


• 
  
  Some principle oxidizing agents are listed below : - - - -

KMnO4, Potassium dichromate, iodine, Potassium iodide, cerium (iv) sulphate.

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  Some principle reducing agents are listed below : - - - -

Vanadiun (II) chloride/sulphate, Titanium (II) chloride/sulphate, chromium (II) chloride/sulphate.

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  IUPAC definition of Mole : - - - - -

Amount of substance which contains as many elementary units as there are atoms in 0.012 Kg of C-12. The elementary units must be specified and may be an atom, molecule, ion, radical, an electon or other particle or specified group of such particles.

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  Molarity : - - - - Ratio of the moles of solute to the volume of solution in litres. It is denoted by capital M.

Definitions

Pharmacy: Pharmacy is defined as preparation and dispensing of drugs.

Drugs: Drug is defined as any chemical substance used in mitigation , diagnosis, prevention or treatment of diseases.

Pharmacology: Pharmacology is defined as study of the action of drugs on the body.

Pharmacologist: Pharmacologist is defined as person who study about drugs as well as the action of drugs on the body.

Pharmacopoeia: Pharmacopoeia is defined as book with list of drugs and directions for use.

for examples in India , the term IP is used in every medicines which stands for Indian pharmacopoeia(IP) and British pharmacopoeia is in England and (USP) stands for United states of pharmacopoeia which is used in United states.